chapter 40 basic principles of animal form and function
Overview
Animal anatomy correlates with physiology. Form correlates with function. Animal body plans are organized systems. Tissues are groups of cells with similar appearance and common function that can organize further into organs. Epithelial tissue covers the outside of organs and bodies, connective tissue holds many other tissues/organs in place, muscle tissue allows for movement, and nervous tissue allows for communication throughout the body (examples below).
Feedback control mechanisms play a crucial role in maintaining the internal environment in many animals. The steady internal balance, called homeostasis, is controlled by negative and positive feedback. Negative feedback reduces the stimulus and positive feedback amplifies the stimulus. The homeostatic processes for thermoregulation also involve form, function, and behavior. Endotherms are warmed by the heat from metabolism while ectotherms get heat from external sources. Circulatory adaptations like vasodilation and vasoconstriction alter the amount of blood flow between body core and skin.
The energy requirements for each animal are related to size, activity, and environment. The flow and transformation of energy in an animal determines nutritional needs, rate of food consumption, and energy lost in waste. Metabolic rate represents the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time. Larger animals need more energy and smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate per gram. Animals also conserve energy in extreme environments with methods like hibernation or torpor, a state of decreased activity and metabolism.
Big Ideas
2.A.1 All living systems require constant input of free energy.
2.C.1 Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes.
2.C.2 Organisms respond to changes in their external environments.
2.D.2 Homeostatic mechanisms reflect both common ancestry and divergence due to adaptation in different environments.
2.D.3 Biological systems are affected by disruptions to their dynamic homeostasis.
Artifacts
Animal anatomy correlates with physiology. Form correlates with function. Animal body plans are organized systems. Tissues are groups of cells with similar appearance and common function that can organize further into organs. Epithelial tissue covers the outside of organs and bodies, connective tissue holds many other tissues/organs in place, muscle tissue allows for movement, and nervous tissue allows for communication throughout the body (examples below).
Feedback control mechanisms play a crucial role in maintaining the internal environment in many animals. The steady internal balance, called homeostasis, is controlled by negative and positive feedback. Negative feedback reduces the stimulus and positive feedback amplifies the stimulus. The homeostatic processes for thermoregulation also involve form, function, and behavior. Endotherms are warmed by the heat from metabolism while ectotherms get heat from external sources. Circulatory adaptations like vasodilation and vasoconstriction alter the amount of blood flow between body core and skin.
The energy requirements for each animal are related to size, activity, and environment. The flow and transformation of energy in an animal determines nutritional needs, rate of food consumption, and energy lost in waste. Metabolic rate represents the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time. Larger animals need more energy and smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate per gram. Animals also conserve energy in extreme environments with methods like hibernation or torpor, a state of decreased activity and metabolism.
Big Ideas
2.A.1 All living systems require constant input of free energy.
2.C.1 Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes.
2.C.2 Organisms respond to changes in their external environments.
2.D.2 Homeostatic mechanisms reflect both common ancestry and divergence due to adaptation in different environments.
2.D.3 Biological systems are affected by disruptions to their dynamic homeostasis.
Artifacts
Reflection
The images in the reading guide and the description in the chapter about tissues were necessary for me to understand some basic concepts about animal form and function. This chapter outlined some major principles of animal bodies and how they operate, which set the stage for the rest of the chapters in this unit. We actually did not go into much detail about every tissue, except for nervous tissue (see sections on Chapter 48 and 49 further down on this page). Still, gaining a bit more understanding about the various tissues helped to gain a better understanding of animal bodies and organs as a whole.
Study Tool
The images in the reading guide and the description in the chapter about tissues were necessary for me to understand some basic concepts about animal form and function. This chapter outlined some major principles of animal bodies and how they operate, which set the stage for the rest of the chapters in this unit. We actually did not go into much detail about every tissue, except for nervous tissue (see sections on Chapter 48 and 49 further down on this page). Still, gaining a bit more understanding about the various tissues helped to gain a better understanding of animal bodies and organs as a whole.
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chapter 43 The immune system
Overview
The chapter on the immune system is long, complex, and difficult. Also important. All animals (and plants) have innate immunity, which relies on recognition and response to traits common to groups of pathogens. Barrier defenses, cellular innate defenses like macrophages, antimicrobial peptides and proteins, and the inflammatory response make up innate immunity. The cell-mediated and humoral immune responses make up adaptive immunty, only found in vertebrates. The cell-mediated response is when specialized T cells destroy infected host cells and the humoral response occurs in blood and lymph as B cell antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins there.
T cells mature in the thymus and go on to become helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells, which carry out the cell-mediated immune response and activate B cells. B cells mature in the bone marrow and go on to perform the humoral response, in which B cells proliferate, and produce antibodies that defeat pathogens. Of course, the immune system doesn't work seamlessly. Allergies, autoimmune disorders (self-attack), and immunodeficiency diseases exist. Also, pathogens continue to evolve and find ways to avoid the immune defenses. For a (much) more in-depth overview of the chapter, check the PowerPoint under the Artifact section.
The chapter on the immune system is long, complex, and difficult. Also important. All animals (and plants) have innate immunity, which relies on recognition and response to traits common to groups of pathogens. Barrier defenses, cellular innate defenses like macrophages, antimicrobial peptides and proteins, and the inflammatory response make up innate immunity. The cell-mediated and humoral immune responses make up adaptive immunty, only found in vertebrates. The cell-mediated response is when specialized T cells destroy infected host cells and the humoral response occurs in blood and lymph as B cell antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins there.
T cells mature in the thymus and go on to become helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells, which carry out the cell-mediated immune response and activate B cells. B cells mature in the bone marrow and go on to perform the humoral response, in which B cells proliferate, and produce antibodies that defeat pathogens. Of course, the immune system doesn't work seamlessly. Allergies, autoimmune disorders (self-attack), and immunodeficiency diseases exist. Also, pathogens continue to evolve and find ways to avoid the immune defenses. For a (much) more in-depth overview of the chapter, check the PowerPoint under the Artifact section.
Big Ideas
2.D.4 Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis.
Artifact
2.D.4 Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis.
Artifact
Reflection
For the chapter on the immune system two of my classmates and I gave a presentation, which is shown above. The PowerPoint has all of the important information from the chapter. I worked on re-organizing the information into more suitable slides. Since there is so much in this chapter, it was difficult to present the immune system in an appropriate way so that others could grasp what we presented. All in all, preparing for this presentation gave me an opportunity to become very knowledgeable about how the (human) immune system works.
Study Tool
For the chapter on the immune system two of my classmates and I gave a presentation, which is shown above. The PowerPoint has all of the important information from the chapter. I worked on re-organizing the information into more suitable slides. Since there is so much in this chapter, it was difficult to present the immune system in an appropriate way so that others could grasp what we presented. All in all, preparing for this presentation gave me an opportunity to become very knowledgeable about how the (human) immune system works.
Study Tool
chapter 45 hormones and the endocrine system
Overview
Hormones are signaling molecules that travel throughout the body and trigger specific bodily responses. The images under the "Artifact" section illustrate endocrine, autocrine, synaptic, and neuroendocrine system. The picture illustrating paracrine signaling, when molecules diffuse locally and trigger responses in neighboring cells, is missing.
Water-soluble hormones circulate in the body and then bind to the target cell's receptors, which can cause changes in cytoplasmic molecules or gene transcription. Lipid-soluble hormones can move into the cell and into its nucleus and bind to specific sites on the DNA, altering gene transcription. The varied effects of one hormone enhance the rapid reaction of the body. Tissues may also vary in response to one hormone due to different receptors or signal transduction.
This chapter also emphasizes feedback regulation, very common in endocrine systems. Insulin and glucagon have opposing effects and regulate blood glucose levels in a negative feedback loop. If there is a deficiency of insulin, diabetes may result.
Artifacts
Hormones are signaling molecules that travel throughout the body and trigger specific bodily responses. The images under the "Artifact" section illustrate endocrine, autocrine, synaptic, and neuroendocrine system. The picture illustrating paracrine signaling, when molecules diffuse locally and trigger responses in neighboring cells, is missing.
Water-soluble hormones circulate in the body and then bind to the target cell's receptors, which can cause changes in cytoplasmic molecules or gene transcription. Lipid-soluble hormones can move into the cell and into its nucleus and bind to specific sites on the DNA, altering gene transcription. The varied effects of one hormone enhance the rapid reaction of the body. Tissues may also vary in response to one hormone due to different receptors or signal transduction.
This chapter also emphasizes feedback regulation, very common in endocrine systems. Insulin and glucagon have opposing effects and regulate blood glucose levels in a negative feedback loop. If there is a deficiency of insulin, diabetes may result.
Artifacts
ch45_readingguide.pdf | |
File Size: | 1112 kb |
File Type: |
Reflection
For this chapter I found the reading guide and images to be important to my understanding. Though this is definitely becoming repetitive, labeling the images, like the ones above, really helped me to learn the terms. Visual aids can be instrumental in the process of learning new information. The chapter on hormones was not hard for me to understand. The presentation we listened to on this topic was also clear and concise. That's all.
For this chapter I found the reading guide and images to be important to my understanding. Though this is definitely becoming repetitive, labeling the images, like the ones above, really helped me to learn the terms. Visual aids can be instrumental in the process of learning new information. The chapter on hormones was not hard for me to understand. The presentation we listened to on this topic was also clear and concise. That's all.
chapter 47 animal development
Overview
In animal development, cytoplasmic determinants and signals decide cell fate. Determination is the process by which cells become committed to a certain fate, while differentiation results in specialization of structure and function. Totipotent cells could develop into all different cell types of the species. Fate maps are diagrams that show what structures arise from each region of an embryo and pattern formation is the process by which an animal's spatial organization actually develops. Axis and limb formation create symmetry in organisms. The processes of development are obviously essential in forming a functional organism.
Artifact
Chapter 47 reading guide can be found below:
In animal development, cytoplasmic determinants and signals decide cell fate. Determination is the process by which cells become committed to a certain fate, while differentiation results in specialization of structure and function. Totipotent cells could develop into all different cell types of the species. Fate maps are diagrams that show what structures arise from each region of an embryo and pattern formation is the process by which an animal's spatial organization actually develops. Axis and limb formation create symmetry in organisms. The processes of development are obviously essential in forming a functional organism.
Artifact
Chapter 47 reading guide can be found below:
ch47_readingguide.pdf | |
File Size: | 287 kb |
File Type: |
Reflection
We only had to read one short section for Chapter 47. I actually found that the information in this chapter was very specific and couldn't really understand why it was important to our understanding of animals. Since it is only one short section about cell fate and inductive signals, we were left with just some material about those topics and very little context. The reading guide was short and not very challenging. I doubt I will remember this chapter and we also did not need to know any of it for the AP exam. I wish we had had a more complete lesson on animal development.
We only had to read one short section for Chapter 47. I actually found that the information in this chapter was very specific and couldn't really understand why it was important to our understanding of animals. Since it is only one short section about cell fate and inductive signals, we were left with just some material about those topics and very little context. The reading guide was short and not very challenging. I doubt I will remember this chapter and we also did not need to know any of it for the AP exam. I wish we had had a more complete lesson on animal development.
chapter 48 neurons, synapses, and signaling
Overview
Neurons are nerve cells that transfer info within the body. Information is processed from sensory neurons to interneurons to motor neurons. Glial cells support the neurons, insulate, and nourish. Ion pumps and channels are the proteins through which ions move and which maintain the resting potential or bring about an action potential. The steps of an action potential are diagrammed below. Please see that image to gain an understanding of the process. Signals are transmitted through these action potentials and travel along the length of the axon and to the synaptic terminal and often to another neuron. Myelin sheaths insulate neurons and allow for saltatory conduction, which is much faster than regular conduction.
Big Ideas
3.E.2 Animals have nervous systems that detect external and internal signals, transmit and integrate information, and produce responses.
4.A.4 Organisms exhibit complex properties due to interactions between their constituent parts.
Artifact
Neurons are nerve cells that transfer info within the body. Information is processed from sensory neurons to interneurons to motor neurons. Glial cells support the neurons, insulate, and nourish. Ion pumps and channels are the proteins through which ions move and which maintain the resting potential or bring about an action potential. The steps of an action potential are diagrammed below. Please see that image to gain an understanding of the process. Signals are transmitted through these action potentials and travel along the length of the axon and to the synaptic terminal and often to another neuron. Myelin sheaths insulate neurons and allow for saltatory conduction, which is much faster than regular conduction.
Big Ideas
3.E.2 Animals have nervous systems that detect external and internal signals, transmit and integrate information, and produce responses.
4.A.4 Organisms exhibit complex properties due to interactions between their constituent parts.
Artifact
Reflection
The image above depicts the progression of an action potential. This graph and the individual pictured steps of an action potential were extremely important for me to truly understand why and how this transmission works. Going through the image step by step helped me to thoroughly learn how the process occurs. I know that while I was reading about action potential, I definitely did not understand it yet. These images (as well as the great presentation on the nervous system in class) really changed my understanding of depolarization, action potential, and re-polarization for the better.
Study Tool
The image above depicts the progression of an action potential. This graph and the individual pictured steps of an action potential were extremely important for me to truly understand why and how this transmission works. Going through the image step by step helped me to thoroughly learn how the process occurs. I know that while I was reading about action potential, I definitely did not understand it yet. These images (as well as the great presentation on the nervous system in class) really changed my understanding of depolarization, action potential, and re-polarization for the better.
Study Tool
chapter 49 nervous systems
Overview
The 49th chapter focuses on the vertebrate brain. The required reading was only one section of the chapter and explained certain parts of the brain such as the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brainstem. The cerebrum (major part of the brain) controls skeletal muscles, learning, emotion, memory, and perception. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance, while the diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The brainstem transfers info between the peripheral nervous system, midbrain, and forebrain.
Big Ideas
3.E.2 Animals have nervous systems that detect external and internal signals, transmit and integrate information, and produce responses.
Artifact
View my notes on the required reading for this chapter below.
The 49th chapter focuses on the vertebrate brain. The required reading was only one section of the chapter and explained certain parts of the brain such as the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brainstem. The cerebrum (major part of the brain) controls skeletal muscles, learning, emotion, memory, and perception. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance, while the diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The brainstem transfers info between the peripheral nervous system, midbrain, and forebrain.
Big Ideas
3.E.2 Animals have nervous systems that detect external and internal signals, transmit and integrate information, and produce responses.
Artifact
View my notes on the required reading for this chapter below.
ch49_notes.pdf | |
File Size: | 610 kb |
File Type: |
Reflection
The file above shows an example of my notes, since no reading guide was required for Chapter 49. We only read section 49.2, which gave an overview of the brain and its numerous parts. Some important functions were described. My notes, once again, help me to process what I read and actually remember important terms and explanations that I wrote down. Unfortunately, this is another topic I wish we could have delved into more deeply. The brain is a fascinating part of animal bodies and deserves to be studied. Hopefully I will learn more in the future.
Study Tool
The file above shows an example of my notes, since no reading guide was required for Chapter 49. We only read section 49.2, which gave an overview of the brain and its numerous parts. Some important functions were described. My notes, once again, help me to process what I read and actually remember important terms and explanations that I wrote down. Unfortunately, this is another topic I wish we could have delved into more deeply. The brain is a fascinating part of animal bodies and deserves to be studied. Hopefully I will learn more in the future.
Study Tool
chapter 51 animal behavior
Overview
There are so many aspects to animal behavior and many ways in which to communicate. Animals interact through visual, chemical, tactile, and auditory communication.
Learning, another form of behavior, establishes links between experiences and behavior. Imprinting is the formation of a long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object at a specific stage in life. This behavior can be observed in baby swans forming a bond with their parents (swans pictured below, in case you don't remember what they look like). Spatial learning establishes a memory reflecting the environment's spatial structure, allowing the formation of a cognitive map. Associative learning is the ability to associate one feature of an environment with another. Cognition is a form of thinking, reasoning, recollection, and awareness associated with problem solving. Lastly, social learning allows for learning through observing others.
Most behaviors can be explained by selection for individual survival and reproductive success. Foraging behavior results in attainment of food, mating systems and mate choice result in pursuit of suitable mates, and altruism results in an increase of fitness and higher probability of carrying on genes. Yay animalia.
There are so many aspects to animal behavior and many ways in which to communicate. Animals interact through visual, chemical, tactile, and auditory communication.
Learning, another form of behavior, establishes links between experiences and behavior. Imprinting is the formation of a long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object at a specific stage in life. This behavior can be observed in baby swans forming a bond with their parents (swans pictured below, in case you don't remember what they look like). Spatial learning establishes a memory reflecting the environment's spatial structure, allowing the formation of a cognitive map. Associative learning is the ability to associate one feature of an environment with another. Cognition is a form of thinking, reasoning, recollection, and awareness associated with problem solving. Lastly, social learning allows for learning through observing others.
Most behaviors can be explained by selection for individual survival and reproductive success. Foraging behavior results in attainment of food, mating systems and mate choice result in pursuit of suitable mates, and altruism results in an increase of fitness and higher probability of carrying on genes. Yay animalia.
Big Ideas
2.A.1 All living organisms require constant input of free energy.
2.E.3 Timing and coordination of behavior are regulated by various mechanisms and are important in natural selection.
3.E.1 Individuals can act on information and communicate it to others.
Artifact
Reading guide below!
2.A.1 All living organisms require constant input of free energy.
2.E.3 Timing and coordination of behavior are regulated by various mechanisms and are important in natural selection.
3.E.1 Individuals can act on information and communicate it to others.
Artifact
Reading guide below!
ch51_readingguide.pdf | |
File Size: | 1202 kb |
File Type: |
Reflection
I found the chapter on animal behavior to be profoundly interesting. The way that other animals think and operate is very intriguing. The reading guide (again again again) helped me to think about the information I read and emphasized the most important concepts that were covered. This reading guide, however, was not one of my favorites since it contained few images. Aside from that, I really enjoyed learning about how animals learn and interact.
I found the chapter on animal behavior to be profoundly interesting. The way that other animals think and operate is very intriguing. The reading guide (again again again) helped me to think about the information I read and emphasized the most important concepts that were covered. This reading guide, however, was not one of my favorites since it contained few images. Aside from that, I really enjoyed learning about how animals learn and interact.